Iftikhar ch biography of albert

Einstein was born 14 Marchin Ulm the German Empire. Aged 15, the family moved to Milan, Italy, where his father hoped Albert would become a mechanical engineer. His teachers found him dim and slow to learn. Part of the problem was that Albert expressed no interest in learning languages and the learning by rote that was popular at the time. It bored me.

The teachers behaved like Feldwebel sergeants. I wanted to learn what I wanted to know, but they wanted me to learn for the exam. At the age of 12, Einstein picked up a book on geometry and read it cover to cover. He became fascinated by maths and taught himself — becoming acquainted with the great scientific discoveries of the age. Eventually, he was asked to leave by the authorities because his indifference was setting a bad example to other students.

He applied for admission to the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. His iftikhar ch biography of albert attempt was a failure because he failed exams in botany, zoology and languages. However, he passed the next year and in became a Swiss citizen. At college, he met a fellow student Mileva Maric, and after a long friendship, they married in ; they had two sons before divorcing several years later.

In Einstein renounced his German citizenship to avoid military conscription. For five years he was stateless, before successfully applying for Swiss citizenship in After graduating from Zurich college, he attempted to gain a teaching post but none was forthcoming; instead, he gained a job in the Swiss Patent Office. While working at the Patent Office, Einstein continued his own scientific discoveries and began radical experiments to consider the nature of light and space.

In addition to working on his PhD, Einstein also worked feverishly on other papers. Inhe published four pivotal scientific works, which would revolutionise modern physics. He took Austrian-Hungary citizenship to accept the job. Inhe returned to Germany and was appointed a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. From this Quantum Theory, other inventors were able to develop devices such as television and movies.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in This theory was written in a simple style with no footnotes or academic references. The core of his theory of relativity is that:. Thus there is no fixed absolute standard of comparison for judging the motion of the earth or plants. It was revolutionary because previously people had thought time and distance are absolutes.

But, Einstein proved this not to be true. He also said that if electrons travelled at close to the speed of light, their weight would increase. Working from a basis of special relativity. Einstein sought to express all physical laws using equations based on mathematical equations. He devoted the last period of his life trying to formulate a final unified field theory which included a rational explanation for electromagnetism.

However, he was to be frustrated in searching for this final breakthrough theory. He based this on his new general theory of relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply.

This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilationgravitational redshift and gravitational lensing. InEinstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies.

Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. InEinstein predicted gravitational waves[ ] [ ] ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as wavestraveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it.

By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitationwhich postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible.

He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In Junethe Entwurf 'draft' theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions.

After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken [ ] and abandoned the theory in November InEinstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constantinto the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe.

The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Following the discovery of the recession of the galaxies by Edwin Hubble inEinstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedmann—Einstein universe of [ ] [ ] and the Einstein—de Sitter universe of In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him.

The astrophysicist Mario Livio has cast doubt on this claim. In latea team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the galaxies, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.

It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariancebut general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry.

The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether 's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field.

InEinstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormholeoften called Einstein—Rosen bridges. These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches. Because these solutions included spacetime curvature without the presence of a physical body, Einstein and Rosen suggested that they could provide the beginnings of a theory that avoided the notion of point particles.

However, it was later found that Einstein—Rosen bridges are not stable. In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the s. In general relativity, gravitational force is reimagined as curvature of spacetime.

A curved path like an orbit is not the result of a force deflecting a body from an ideal straight-line path, but rather the body's attempt to fall freely through a background that is itself curved by the presence of other masses. A remark by John Archibald Wheeler that has become proverbial among physicists summarizes the theory: Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.

The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic.

Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularitybut this claim remains disputed. In a paper, [ ] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles quanta. Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr.

This idea only became universally accepted inwith Robert Millikan 's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is the Planck constant. He did not say much more, because he was not sure how the particles were related to the wave.

But he did suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect. Lewis in InEinstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator.

Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model. InEinstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bosebased on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles.

Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose—Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University. Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class inhe had not given up on academia.

Inhe became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern. This paper introduced the photon concept and inspired the notion of wave—particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave—particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation. In a series of works completed from toPlanck reformulated his quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory".

Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their iftikhar ch biography of albert, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.

Inat the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emissionthe physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.

Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie 's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his paper on the photoelectric effect.

However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved iftikhar ch biography of albertdespite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". The Bohr—Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohrwho were two of its founders.

Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in Einstein suggested a thought experiment in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other.

The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a wavefunction. But because of what would later be called quantum entanglementmeasuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object.

Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it.

A more famous version of this argument came inwhen Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle.

Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity.

They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty i. From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system.

Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. InJohn Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated.

This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated.

Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the iftikhar ch biography of albert in the EPR paper overly complicated, [ ] [ ] that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity.

Inhe described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a theory of everything is one to which his successors still aspire. Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned.

These pertain to forcesuperconductivityand other research. In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold InfeldNathan RosenPeter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. InOwen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate.

This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself.

It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, but the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump, [ ] sound reproduction device, [ ] and several other household devices.

While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death she died in [ ].

Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archivestold the BBC that there are about 3, pages of private correspondence written between and Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, [ ] that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety.

The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. Mount Einstein in the Chugach Mountains of Alaska was named in InEinstein was named Time 's Person of the Century. Ina survey of the top physicists voted for Einstein as the "greatest physicist ever", while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists gave the top spot to Isaac Newtonwith Einstein second.

Physicist Lev Landau ranked physicists from 0 to 5 on a logarithmic scale of productivity and genius, with Newton and Einstein belonging in a "super league", with Newton receiving the highest ranking of 0, followed by Einstein with 0. Physicist Eugene Wigner noted that while John von Neumann had the quickest and acute mind he ever knew, the understanding of Einstein was deeper than von Neumann's, stating that: [ ].

But Einstein's understanding was deeper than even Jancsi von Neumann's. His mind was both more penetrating and more original than von Neumann's. And that is a very remarkable statement. Einstein took an extraordinary pleasure in invention. Two of his greatest inventions are the Special and General Theories of Relativity; and for all of Jancsi's brilliance, he never produced anything so original.

No modern physicist has. The year was labeled the " World Year of Physics ", and was also known as "Einstein Year", in recognition of Einstein's " miracle year " in Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory".

Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein. Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".

Many popular quotations are often misattributed to him. Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and inhe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect. None of the nominations in met the criteria set by Alfred Nobelso the prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in Einsteiniuma synthetic chemical element, was named in his honor ina few months after his death.

Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read View source View history. Tools Tools. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. German-born physicist — For other uses, see Einstein disambiguation and Albert Einstein disambiguation. Princeton, New JerseyU. See list. Coining the term unified field theory Describing mass—energy equivalence Explaining Brownian motion Explaining gravitational waves Explaining the photoelectric effect Formulating Einstein field equations Introducing Bose—Einstein statistics Introducing the cosmological constant Postulating the Bose—Einstein condensate Proposing the EPR paradox Proposing general relativity Proposing special relativity.

Albert Einstein's voice. This article is part of a series about. Political views Religious views Family Oppenheimer relationship. Childhood, youth and education. See also: Einstein family. Einstein's parents, Hermann and Pauline. Marriages, relationships and children. Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study. Main article: Political views of Albert Einstein.

Relationship with Zionism. Religious and philosophical views. Main article: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein. Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics. Main articles: Statistical mechanicsthermal fluctuationsand statistical physics. Theory of critical opalescence. Main article: Critical opalescence. Main article: History of special relativity.

General relativity and the equivalence principle. Main article: History of general relativity. See also: Theory of relativity and Einstein field equations. Hole argument and Entwurf theory. Main article: Physical cosmology. Energy momentum pseudotensor. Main article: Stress—energy—momentum pseudotensor. Einstein—Cartan theory. Main article: Einstein—Cartan theory.

Main article: Einstein—Infeld—Hoffmann equations. Main article: Old quantum theory. Photons and energy quanta. Quantized atomic vibrations. Main article: Einstein solid. Bose—Einstein statistics. Main article: Bose—Einstein statistics. Wave—particle duality. Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics. Main article: Bohr—Einstein debates.

Einstein—Podolsky—Rosen paradox. Main article: EPR paradox. Main article: Classical unified field theories. Main article: Einstein's unsuccessful investigations. Collaboration with other scientists. Einstein—de Haas experiment. Main article: Einstein—de Haas effect. Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture. Main article: List of awards and honors received by Albert Einstein.

Further information: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein. Einstein, Albert [Completed 13 December and manuscript received 16 December ]. Written at Zurich, Switzerland. Paul Karl Ludwig Drude ed. Annalen der Physik. Vierte Folge in German. Bibcode : AnP Einstein, Albert a [Completed 17 March and submitted 18 March ]. Written at Berne, Switzerland.

Einstein, Albert b [Completed 30 April ]. Berne, Switzerland: Wyss Buchdruckerei published 20 July Einstein, Albert c [Manuscript received: 11 May ]. Einstein, Albert d [Manuscript received 30 June ]. Annalen der Physik Submitted manuscript. Einstein, Albert e [Manuscript received 27 September ]. Einstein, Albert [Completed 25 November ].

Sitzungsberichte in German. Einstein, Albert [Issued 29 June ].

Iftikhar ch biography of albert

Sitzungsberichte Bibcode : SPAW Einstein, Albert a. Einstein, Albert b. Physikalische Zeitschrift in German. Bibcode : PhyZ Einstein, Albert 31 January Retrieved 14 November Einstein, Albert [First publishedin English ]. Written at Gothenburg. Nobel Lectures, Physics — in German and English. Stockholm: Nobelprice. Einstein, Albert [Published 10 July ].

Archived from the original Online page images on 14 October First of a series of papers on this topic. Written at Berlin. Die Naturwissenschaften in German. Heidelberg, Germany: — Bibcode : NW ISSN S2CID Translated by Cowper, A. US: Dover Publications published ISBN Retrieved 4 January Einstein, Albert Sonderasugabe aus den Sitzungsb. Einstein, A.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Bibcode : PNAS PMC PMID Einstein, Albert; Rosen, Nathan Physical Review. Bibcode : PhRv Physical Review Submitted manuscript. Scientific American. Bibcode : SciAm. Ideas and Opinions. New York: Crown Publishers. New York: Three Rivers Press. Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung. Stachel, John ; Martin J.

Klein; A. Kox; Michel Janssen; R. Schulmann; Diana Komos Buchwald; et al. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein. Princeton University Press. Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project [ ] and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page. Einstein, Albert; et al.

The New York Times. Melville, New York. Archived from the iftikhar ch biography of albert on 17 December Retrieved 25 May Einstein, Albert May Sweezy, Paul; Huberman, Leo eds. Monthly Review. Reprise ". New York: Monthly Review Foundation. Archived from the original on 11 January Retrieved 16 January — via MonthlyReview. Einstein, Albert September Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa.

Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. OCLC Foreword originally written in April Autobiographical Notes. Paul Arthur Schilpp Centennial ed. Chicago: Open Court. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48— The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory. Heinrich Burkhardt Heinrich Zangger History of gravitational theory List of coupled cousins List of German inventors and discoverers List of Jewish Nobel laureates List of peace activists Relativity priority dispute Sticky bead argument.

She has chosen the cream of her culture and has suppressed it. She has even turned upon her most glorious citizen, Albert Einstein, who is the supreme example of the selfless intellectual The man, who, beyond all others, approximates a citizen of the world, is without a home. How proud we must be to offer him temporary shelter. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.

Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. JSTOR Royal Astronomical Society. Archived PDF from the original on 20 December Retrieved 20 December National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 20 December Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3rd ed. Pearson Longman. Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics. World Scientific.

New York: Walker. Nobel Prize. Archived from the original on 3 July Retrieved 11 July The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 12 May Retrieved 23 August Boyer; Melvyn Dubofsky Oxford University Press. The accelerating universe" PDF. Nobel Media AB. Archived from the original PDF on 16 May Archived from the original on 1 January Retrieved 24 November Physics Today.

Bibcode : PhT Bibcode : Natur. Archived from the original on 9 November Retrieved 21 February Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 6 March Retrieved 7 March Archived from the original on 26 January Retrieved 13 February Einstein: His Life and Universe. Parker Tools Tools. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects.

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Election reforms [ edit ]. Retirement [ edit ]. See also [ edit ]. References [ edit ]. Retrieved 23 March Retrieved 18 December The New York Times. Retrieved 13 November Archived from the original on 17 December Archived from the original on 1 September Archived from the original on 29 October Retrieved 17 December DAWN Newspaper. Accessed 27 August BBC News.

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