Robert leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus

Coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became major cash crops for Latin American countries. And foods from the Americas, such as potatoes, tomatoes and corn, became staples for Europeans and helped increase their populations. The Columbian Exchange also brought new diseases to both hemispheres, though the effects were greatest in the Americas.

Smallpox from the Old World killed millions, decimating the Native American populations to mere fractions of their original numbers. This more than any other factor allowed for European domination of the Americas. The overwhelming benefits of the Columbian Exchange went to the Europeans initially and eventually to the rest of the world. The Americas were forever altered, and the once vibrant cultures of the Indigenous civilizations were changed and lost, denying the world any complete understanding of their existence.

As more Italians began to immigrate to the United States and settle in major cities during the 19 th century, they were subject to religious and ethnic discrimination. This included a mass lynching of 11 Sicilian immigrants in in New Orleans. Just one year after this horrific event, President Benjamin Harrison called for the first national observance of Columbus Day on October 12,to mark the th anniversary of his arrival in the Americas.

Italian-Americans saw this honorary act for Columbus as a way of gaining acceptance. Colorado became the first state to officially observe Columbus Day in and, within five years, 14 other states followed. Thanks to a joint resolution of Congress, the day officially became a federal holiday in during the administration of Franklin D. InCongress declared the holiday would fall on the second Monday in October each year.

As ofapproximately 29 states no longer celebrate Columbus Dayand around cities have renamed it or replaced with the alternative Indigenous Peoples Day. One of the most notable cities to move away from celebrating Columbus Day in recent years is the state capital of Columbus, Ohio, which is named after the explorer. In Julythe city also removed a plus-foot metal statue of Columbus from the front of City Hall.

The Biography. We have worked as daily newspaper reporters, major national magazine editors, and as editors-in-chief of regional media publications. Among our ranks are book authors and award-winning journalists. Our staff also works with freelance writers, researchers, and other contributors to produce the smart, compelling profiles and articles you see on our site.

Tyler Piccotti joined the Biography. He previously worked as a reporter and copy editor for a daily newspaper recognized by the Associated Press Sports Editors. Jahangirnagar University: Retrieved 9 January IEEE Spectrum. Constructed on a framework of latitude and longitude, the Ptolemy-revival map projections revealed the extent of the known world in relation to the whole.

The Atlantic. JHU Press. Renaissance Europe 2nd ed. Lexington, Massachusetts: D. Heath and Company. MIT Press. It is also known that wind patterns and water currents in the Atlantic were crucial factors for launching an outward passage from the Canaries: Columbus understood that his robert leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus of crossing the ocean was significantly greater just beyond the Canary calms, where he expected to catch the northeastern trade winds—although, as some authors have pointed out, "westing" from the Canaries, instead of dipping farther south, was hardly an optimal sailing choice, since Columbus's fleet was bound to lose, as soon it did, the northeasterlies in the mid-Atlantic.

Frederick Mathematics Magazine. ISSN X. Again it was rejected. In historical hindsight this looks like a fatally missed opportunity for the Portuguese crown, but the king had good reason not to accept Columbus's project. His panel of experts cast grave doubts on the assumptions behind it, noting that Columbus had underestimated the distance to China.

Chapter XIII, p. Archived from the original on 16 October Retrieved 24 May The Capitulaciones de Santa Fe appointed Columbus as the official viceroy of the Crown, which entitled him, by virtue of royal concession, to all the honors and jurisdictions accorded the conquerors of the Canaries. Usage of the terms "to discover" descubrir and "to acquire" ganar were legal cues indicating the goals of Spanish possession through occupancy and conquest.

Madrid: Ferdinand Columbus: Renaissance Collector — British Museum Press. The Columbian Exchange. CRC Press. In Horodowich, Elizabeth; Markey, Lia eds. Retrieved 10 April August Retrieved 16 March Archived from the original on 26 May Retrieved 12 October University of Chicago Press. Phillips Jr. University of Oklahoma Press. Encyclopedia of North American Indians.

Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Or "these people are very simple as regards the use of arms A Brief History of the Caribbean. University of Alabama Press. Proceedings of the British Academy. Retrieved 24 January University of Toronto Press. Confronting Columbus: An Anthology. Retrieved 28 February The Journal of Christopher Columbus. London: Hakluyt Society.

Portuguese Studies. Spain, — A Society of Conflict. King's College London. Archived from the original on 24 April Retrieved 15 January Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, — Winius, George D. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. And it's not just the artifacts involved". Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 23 February Retrieved 22 February Latin American Studies.

Antonio Rafael de la Cova. Retrieved 10 July University of New Mexico Press. The Journal of Economic History. McAlister Spain and Portugal in the New World, — University of Minnesota Press. Edited and Translated by Samuel Eliot Morison. New York: The Heritage Press, Edited and translated by Benjamin Keen. Bourne editors. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,pp.

Columbus, His Enterprise: Exploding the Myth. New York: Monthly Review Press, 83— Archived from the original on 21 November Retrieved 25 May The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus. Princeton University Press. In Allen, John Logan ed. North American Exploration. University of Nebraska Press. Transaction Publishers. The Caribbean as Columbus Saw it.

Little, Brown. Christopher Columbus: Controversial Explorer of the Americas. Cavendish Square. In Haase, Wolfgang; Meyer, Reinhold eds. The Guardian. Retrieved 16 May Retrieved 12 August The Life of Christopher Columbus. Prabhat Prakashan. Columbus on himself. Christopher Columbus. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Bobadilla was prejudiced in advance by what he heard, or what the monarchs relayed, from Columbus detractors.

HIs brief was to conduct a judicial inquiry into Columbus' conduct, an unjust proceeding, in the Admiral's submission, since Bobadilla had a vested interest in an outcome that would keep him in power. Retrieved 18 June New York: Penguin. Conquistadores: a new history of Spanish discovery and conquest.

Robert leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus

New York: Charles Scribner's Sons The end of the Columbian Government in Hispaniola". Journal on European History of Law. Marcial Pons Historia. The Early Spanish Main. Editorial Universitaria Centroamericana. Las sociedades originarias; El orden colonial. Tomo 2. El orden colonial in Spanish. Government Printing Office. In Roorda, Paul ed.

Hispanic American Historical Review. Retrieved 26 January The First Americans. Berkeley: University of California Press. Westminster John Knox Press. The American Historical Review. University of Maryland School of Medicine. Archived from the original on 23 January Archives of Internal Medicine. PMID September The American Journal of the Medical Sciences.

Micheal; Slape, Emily Tarver, H. Micheal; Slape, Emily eds. El Universal in Spanish. Retrieved 2 February Inflammatory Arthritis in Clinical Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Archived from the original on 27 August Retrieved 20 March Retrieved 3 February Associated Press. Archived from the original on 31 October Retrieved 15 August Retrieved 26 October June Cuadernos de Medicina Forense in Spanish.

AP News. Archived from the original on 19 May Retrieved 21 May New York: G. Putnam's Sons. Evening Star. Archived from the original on 2 January Retrieved 15 August — via Newspapers. In Search of a Kingdom. Boston: Mariner Books. Christopher Columbus did not discover a new world, nor did he ever set foot on the North American continent. Rather, he established continuous contact between two continents, each with major populations.

But he became a national hero for the United States, and, as such, he has frequently been placed on the same level with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln by Americans who prefer mythology to facts. Early in our history, he became a unifying symbol to the struggling English roberts leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus when Puritan preachers began to use his life as an exemplum of the developing American spirit.

On the eve of the American Revolution, poems, songs, sermons, and polemic essays in which Columbus was idealized as the discoverer of a new land for a new people flowed from New England. Such veneration culminated in a movement to name the nation "Columbia. Thinking back in spring to "the antiquities of New England," Cotton Mather came upon a crucial connection, as he saw it, between the voyage of Columbus two centuries before and the Puritans' Great Migration.

Considered together, the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the landing at San Salvador held the key to a great design. To begin with, Columbus's voyage was one of three shaping events of the modern age, all of which occurred in rapid succession at the turn of the sixteenth century: 1 " the Resurrection of Literature ", University Press of New England.

The Legacy of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. The Nation. NYU Press. Richard; Gregory, Stanley V. In Benke, Arthur C. Rivers of North America. Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura. Leif Eriksson Day commemorates the Norse explorer believed to have led the first European expedition to North America.

On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador. In Januaryleaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republiche left for Spain. He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage.

More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want. Check out 10 things you may not know about the Genoese explorer who sailed the ocean blue in About six months later, in SeptemberColumbus returned to the Americas.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some enslaved people to Queen Isabella. In MayColumbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time.

Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over. Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have beenTaino were left on their island. Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

Incleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives.

Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in The women rescued in Guadeloupe explained that any male captives were eaten, and that their own male offspring were castrated and made to serve the Caribs until they were old enough to be considered good to eat. The Europeans rescued three of these boys. A canoe party led by a cousin of Guacanagari presented Columbus with two golden masks and told him that Guacanagari had been injured by another chief, Caonaboand that except for some Spanish casualties resulting from sickness and quarrel, the rest of his men were well.

There, they established the settlement of La Isabela. Finding some, he established a small fort in the interior. Columbus left Hispaniola on 24 Apriland arrived at the robert leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus of Cuba which he had named Juana during his first voyage on 30 April and Discovery Bay, Jamaicaon 5 May.

He explored the south coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula of China rather than an island, and several nearby islands including La Evangelista the Isle of Youthbefore returning to Hispaniola on 20 August. Columbus had planned for Queen Isabella to set up trading posts with the cities of the Far East made famous by Marco Polo, but whose Silk Road and eastern maritime routes had been blockaded to her crown's trade.

InColumbus sent Alonso de Ojeda whom a contemporary described as "always the first to draw blood wherever there was a war or quarrel" to Cibao where gold was being mined[ 95 ] which resulted in Ojeda's capturing several natives on an accusation of theft. Ojeda cut the ears off of one native, and sent the others to La Isabela in chains, where Columbus ordered them to be decapitated.

They could not get up to search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. ByColumbus had shared his viceroyship with one of his military officers named Margarit, ordering him to prioritize Christianizing the natives, but that part of their noses and ears should be cut off for stealing.

Margarit's men exploited the natives by beating, raping and enslaving them, with none on Hispaniola being baptized for another two years. Columbus's brother Diego warned Margarit to follow the admiral's orders, which provoked him to take robert leblanc ibm biography of christopher columbus caravels back to Spain. Fray Buil, who was supposed to perform baptisms, accompanied Margarit.

After arriving in Spain in lateBuil complained to the Spanish court of the Columbus brothers and that there was no gold. Groups of Margarit's soldiers who remained in the west continued brutalizing the natives. In June of that year, the Spanish crown sent ships and supplies to the colony on Hispaniola, which Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi had helped procure.

Columbus's tribute system was described by his son Ferdinand: "In the Cibao, where the gold mines were, every person of fourteen years of age or upward was to pay a large hawk's bell of gold dust; [ y ] all others were each to pay 25 pounds of cotton. Whenever an Indian delivered his tribute, he was to receive a brass or copper token which he must wear about his neck as proof that he had made his payment; any Indian found without such a token was to be punished.

Columbus became ill inand during this time, his troops acted out of order, enacting cruelties on the natives, including torturing them to learn where the supposed gold was. The Spanish fleet departed La Isabela on 10 March Upon going ashore, the Spaniards were ambushed by arrows; in response, they destroyed some huts. They then held a group of 13 native women and children hostage to force a sale of cassava.

King John reportedly knew of the existence of such a mainland because "canoes had been found which set out from the coast of Guinea [West Africa] and sailed to the west with merchandise. Three of the ships headed directly for Hispaniola with much-needed supplies, while Columbus took the other three in an exploration of what might lie to the south of the Caribbean islands he had already visited, including a hoped-for passage to continental Asia.

On 13 July, Columbus's fleet entered the doldrums of the mid-Atlantic, where they were becalmed for several days, the heat doing damage to their ships, food, and water supply. Columbus recognized from the topography that it must be the continent's mainland, but while describing it as an otro mundo 'other world'[ ] retained the belief that it was Asia—and perhaps an Earthly Paradise.

They sailed further west, where the sight of pearls compelled Columbus to send men to obtain some, if not gold. The natives provided nourishment including a maize wine, new to Columbus. Compelled to reach Hispaniola before the food aboard his ship spoiled, Columbus was disappointed to discover that they had sailed into a gulf, and while they had obtained fresh water, they had to go back east to reach open waters again.

Making observations with a quadrant at sea, Columbus inaccurately measured the polar radius of the North Star's diurnal motion to be five degrees, double the value of another erroneous reading he had made from further north. This led him to describe the figure of the Earth as pear-shapedwith the "stalk" portion ascending towards Heaven.

In poor health, Columbus returned to Hispaniola on 19 August, only to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were in rebellion against his rule, claiming that Columbus had misled them about the supposedly bountiful riches they expected to find. A number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement.

Columbus had some of his crew hanged for disobedience. He had an economic interest in the enslavement of the Hispaniola natives and for that reason was not eager to baptize them, which attracted criticism from some churchmen. Columbus was eventually forced to make peace with the rebellious colonists on humiliating terms. He was eventually freed and allowed to return to the Americas, but not as governor.

After his second journey, Columbus had requested that people be sent to stay permanently though voluntarily on Hispaniola, all on the king's pay. Specifically, he asked for men to work as wood men, soldiers, and laborers; 50 farmers, 40 squires, 30 sailors, 30 cabin boys, 20 goldsmiths, 10 gardeners, 20 handymen, and 30 women. In addition to this, plans were made to maintain friars and clergymen, a physician, a pharmacist, an herbalist, and musicians for entertaining the colonists.

Fearing that the king was going to restrict money allotted for wages, Columbus suggested that Spanish criminals be pardoned in exchange for a few years unpaid service in Hispaniola, and the king agreed to this. A pardon for the death penalty would require two years of service, and one year of service was required for lesser crimes.

They also instructed that those who had been sentenced to exile would also be redirected to be exiled in Hispaniola. These new colonists were sent directly to Hispaniola in three ships with supplies, while Columbus was taking an alternate route with the other three ships to explore. Over months, Columbus tried negotiating with the rebels. Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted; his body was wracked by arthritis and his eyes by ophthalmia.

In Octoberhe sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Castile to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern. On 3 Februaryhe returned to Santo Domingo with plans to sail back to Spain to defend himself from the accounts of the rebels. The sovereigns gave Francisco de Bobadillaa member of the Order of Calatravacomplete control as governor in the Americas.

Bobadilla arrived in Santo Domingo in Augustwhere Diego was overseeing the execution of rebels, while Columbus was suppressing a revolt at Grenada. Bobadilla used force to prevent the execution of several prisoners, and subsequently took charge of Columbus's possessions, including papers that he would have used to defend himself in Spain.

In early OctoberColumbus and Diego presented themselves to Bobadilla, and were put in chains aboard La GordaColumbus's own ship. Bobadilla's inquiry produced testimony that Columbus forced priests not to baptize natives without his express permission, so he could first decide whether or not they should be sold into slavery. Other allegations include that he: ordered a woman to be whipped naked on the back of a donkey for lying that she was pregnant, had a woman's tongue cut out for seeming to insult him and his brothers, cut a Spaniard's throat for being homosexual, ordered Christians to be hanged for stealing bread, ordered a cabin boy's hand cut off and posted publicly for using a trap to catch a fish, and ordered for a man to have his nose and ears cut off, as well as to be whipped, shackled, and banished.

Multiple culprits were given a potentially fatal lashes, sometimes while naked. Some fifty men starved to death on La Isabela because of tight control over the ship's rations, despite there being an abundance. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. By his own request, Columbus remained in chains during the entire voyage home.

It is now seventeen years since I came to serve these princes with the Enterprise of the Indies. They made me pass eight of them in discussion, and at the end rejected it as a thing of jest. Nevertheless I persisted therein Over there I have placed under their sovereignty more land than there is in Africa and Europe, and more than 1, islands In seven years I, by the divine will, made that conquest.

At a time when I was entitled to expect rewards and retirement, I was incontinently arrested and sent home loaded with chains The accusation was brought out of malice on the basis of charges made by civilians who had revolted and wished to take possession on the land I beg your graces, with the zeal of faithful Christians in whom their Highnesses have confidence, to read all my papers, and to consider how I, who came from so far to serve these princes Columbus and his brothers were jailed for six weeks before the busy King Ferdinand ordered them released.

On 12 Decemberthe king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to their presence at the Alhambra palace in Granada. With his chains at last removed, Columbus wore shortened sleeves so the marks on his skin would be visible. Their freedom was restored. On 3 Septemberthe door was firmly shut on Columbus's role as governor. A royal mandate dated 27 September ordered Bobadilla to return Columbus's possessions.

After much persuasion, the sovereigns agreed to fund Columbus's fourth voyage. It would be his final chance to prove himself and become the first man ever to circumnavigate the world. Columbus's goal was to find the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. After using the trade winds to cross the Atlantic in a brisk twenty days, on 15 June, they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique Martinica.

He arrived at Santo Domingo on June 29, but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his warning of a storm. Columbus's personal gold and other belongings were put on the fragile Aguyaconsidered the fleet's least seaworthy vessel. The onset of a hurricane drove some ships ashore, with some sinking in the harbor of Santo Domingo; Bobadilla's ship is thought to have reached the eastern end of Hispaniola before sinking.

About 20 other vessels sank in the Atlantic, with a total of some people drowning. Only the Aguya made it to Spain, causing some of Columbus's enemies to accuse him of conjuring the storm. After the hurricane, Columbus regrouped with his men, and after a brief stop at Jamaica and off the coast of Cuba to replenish, he sailed to modern Central Americaarriving at Guanaja [ ] Isla de los Pinos in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on 30 July Here Bartolomeo found native merchants—possibly but not conclusively Mayans [ ] [ ae ] —and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo.

He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaraguaand Costa Rica looking for the passage, before arriving in Almirante Bay, Panamaon 16 October. In mid-November, Columbus was told by some of the natives that a province called Ciguare "lie just nine days' journey by land to the west", or some miles from his location in Veragua. Here was supposed to be found "gold without limit", "people who wear coral on their heads" who "know of pepper", "do business in fairs and markets", and who were "accustomed to warfare".

Columbus would later write to the sovereigns that, according to the natives, "the sea encompasses Ciguare and On 5 DecemberColumbus and his crew found themselves in a storm unlike any they had ever experienced. In his journal Columbus writes. For nine days I was as one lost, without hope of life. Eyes never beheld the sea so angry, so high, so covered with foam.

The wind not only prevented our progress, but offered no opportunity to run behind any headland for shelter; hence we were forced to keep out in this bloody ocean, seething like a pot on a hot fire. Never did the sky look more terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace, and the lightning broke with such violence that each time I wondered if it had carried off my spars and sails; the flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought that the ship would be blasted.

All this time the water never ceased to fall from the sky; I do not say it rained, for it was like another deluge. The men were so worn out that they longed for death to end their dreadful suffering. Columbus left for Hispaniola on 16 April; on 10 May, he sighted the Cayman Islandsnaming them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles there.

Ann's Bay, Jamaicaon 25 June. For a year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Mendez, and some natives paddled a canoe to get help from Hispaniola. In the meantime, Columbus had to mesmerize the natives in order to prevent being attacked by them and gain their goodwill.